Model Facilities
Amphibian Ark considers that there are two steps which are vital in any good ex situ conservation program, especially those that might eventually involve release back into the wild:
- the program should be based within the range country; and
- the population being managed should be housed in isolation from other populations occurring outside its range.
Where possible, all amphibian programs that will ultimately result in reintroduction or translocation programs should be operated within the native range of the species. Maintaining these populations within the range country generally results in lower disease risks than programs that are located outside the native range of the species. This helps to reduce the risks of introducing non‐native pathogens into the environment around the facility holding the amphibians, and the possibility of introducing novel local pathogens to amphibians that are collected and housed outside of the range country.
The lowest risk situation for introduction of a significant infectious disease to wild amphibian populations as the result of a reintroduction program is when survival assurance populations are located within the native country of the species or species assemblage AND the facility keeps only amphibians from inside the native country (Pessier and Mendelson, 2010).
Amphibians used in translocation or reintroduction programs should be kept in long-term isolation from amphibians that are from outside of the native range of the species that will be reintroduced. This process of isolation is especially important for institutions that want to participate in amphibian conservation programs, but that have amphibian collections that are mixed or “cosmopolitan” (e.g., amphibians from multiple geographic locations are housed in one facility). Mixed amphibian collections increase the risk of the introduction of a significant infectious disease to wild amphibian populations as the result of a reintroduction program since the population being managed may be exposed to animals with infectious diseases not already present in the captive population.
In general, amphibians that have been held in situations without appropriate biosecurity practices are not suitable for use in a reintroduction program.
Captive breeding programs or survival assurance colonies that intend to reintroduce amphibians to the wild should maintain those animals in permanent isolation (e.g., dedicated rooms or buildings) away from amphibians that originate from outside the native range of the species. Husbandry practices such as the use of dedicated footwear, protective clothing, dedicated tools and equipment, and following specific work‐flow patterns reduce the risk of introducing non‐native pathogens to amphibian collections. Facilities located within the natural range of the species and that do not keep amphibians from outside the natural range are the best example of permanent isolation and require the least amount of expense and effort (Pessier and Mendelson, 2010).
See A guide to husbandry and biosecurity standards required for the safe and responsible management of ex situ populations of amphibians and Manual For Control of Infectious Diseases in Amphibian Survival Assurance Colonies and Reintroduction Programs for additional information about maintaining amphibian populations in biosecure conditions.
Example model facilities
Amphibian Ark commends the following ex situ amphibian conservation programs as some of those which are based within the range country of the species, and maintain the populations in isolation from other amphibian populations occurring outside the range (click the species names for full details for each program):
| Species | Country | Institution | Start date | In range | Isolated population | Offspring produced | F2 produced | Releases | Secure in wild |
| Ambystoma laterale | USA | Omaha’s Henry Doorly Zoo | 2010 |
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| Anaxyrus houstonensis | USA | Houston Zoo | 2007 |
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| Anotheca spinosa | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2006 |
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| Andrias japonicus | Japan | Asa Zoo | 1971 |
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| Atelopus balios | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Atelopus certus | Panama | Summit Zoo | 2009 |
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| Atelopus elegans | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Atelopus exiguus | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Atelopus glyphus | Panama | Summit Zoo, El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2009 |
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| Atelopus limosus (Lowland) | Panama | Summit Zoo | 2009 |
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| Atelopus limosus (Upland) | Panama | Summit Zoo | 2009 |
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| Atelopus nanay | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru / Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Atelopus nanay | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Atelopus palmatus | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Atelopus sp. Limón | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Atelopus sp. Limón | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Atelopus sp. nov (Cordillera del condor) | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Atelopus spumarius | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Atelopus varius | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Atelopus zeteki | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2005 |
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| Centrolene ilex | Panama | Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project | 2005 |
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| Ceratophrys stolzmanni | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Ceratophrys stolzmanni | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Ceratophrys stolzmanni | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Cochranella euknemos | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Colostethus jacobuspetersi | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Craugastor punctariolus | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Craugastor tabasarae | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Echinotriton chinhaiensis | China | Chengdu Institution of Biology | 1999 |
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| Ecnomiohyla miliaria | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Epipedobates anthonyi | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Epipedobates tricolor | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Craugastor cornuta | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca litonedis | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Gastrotheca litonedis | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca litonedis | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca monticola | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca orophylax | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Gastrotheca plumbea | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Gastrotheca pseustes | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 20011 |
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| Gastrotheca pseustes | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca pseustes | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Gastrotheca riobambae | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Gastrotheca riobambae | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2003 |
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| Geocrinia alba | Australia | Perth Zoo | 2005 |
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| Geocrinia vitellina | Australia | Perth Zoo | 2005 |
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| Hemiphractus fasciatus | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2005 |
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| Hyalinobatrachium vireovittatum | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2006 |
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| Hylomantis lemur | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2005 |
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| Hyloscirtus colymba | Panama | Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project | 2009 |
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| Hyloscirtus pantostictus | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Hyloscirtus sp. nov | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Hyloscirtus sp. nov | Ecuador | Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador | 2005 |
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| Hyloxalus vertebralis | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Incilius cristatus | Mexico | Africam Safari | 2008 |
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| Incilius cristatus | Mexico | Africam Safari | 2008 |
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| Litoria aurea | Australia | ZAA institutions | 1995 |
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| Litoria booroolongensis | Australia | Taronga Zoo | 2007 |
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| Litoria castanea | Australia | Taronga Zoo | 2010 |
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| Litoria raniformis | Australia | ZAA institutions | 1999 |
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| Litoria spenceri | Australia | ZAA institutions | 2003 |
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| Leiopelma archeyi | New Zealand | Auckland Zoo | 2003 |
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| Leiopelma hochstetteri | New Zealand | Hamilton Zoo | 2006 |
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| Leiopelma pakeka | New Zealand | Karori Wildlife Sanctuary | 2003 |
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| Mantella aurantiaca | Madagascar | Association Mitsinjo | 2010 |
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| Mixophyes balbus | Australia | Melbourne Zoo | 2005 |
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| Mixophyes fleayi | Australia | ZAA institutions | 2003 |
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| Nectophrynoides asperginis | Tanzania – United Republic Of | University of Dar es Salaam | 2010 |
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| Nelsonophryne aequatorialis | Ecuador | Centro Jambatu de Investigción y Conservación de Anfibios | 2011 |
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| Nelsonophryne aequatorialis | Ecuador | Zoo Amaru/Amphibian Conservation Center-Mazán | 2005 |
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| Neurergus microspilotus | Iran – Islamic Republic Of; Iraq | Razi University, Kermansha, Iran | 2009 |
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| Oophaga lehmanni | Colombia | Fundación Zoológica de Cali – CREA | 2006 |
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| Philoria frosti | Australia | Amphibian Research Centre | 2003 |
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| Peltophryne longinasus | Cuba | Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Cuba | 2005 |
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| Plectrohyla acanthodes | Mexico | Africam Safari | 2009 |
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| Pristimantis museosus | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Pseudophryne corroboree | Australia | Amphibian Reseach Centre, Taronga Zoo, Zoos Victoria | 2002 |
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| Pseudophryne pengilleyi | Australia | Australian Capital Territory National Parks Service | 2003 |
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| Rana pretiosa | Canada | Vancouver Aquarium | 2007 |
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| Rana pretiosa | USA | U.S. Fish and Wildlife Department, Washington Fish and Wildlife Department, Oregon Zoo, Woodland Park Zoo, Cedar Creek Corrections Center, and Northwest Trek | 2007 |
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| Rhacophorus annamensis | Vietnam | Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources | 2006 |
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| Rhacophorus kio | Vietnam | Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources | 2006 |
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| Rhinoderma darwinii | Chile | Leipzig Zoo, Universidad de Concepcion | 2009 |
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| Silverstoneia nubicola | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC) | 2006 |
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| Sooglossus gardineri | Seychelles | Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles | 2008 |
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| Sooglossus pipilodryas | Seychelles | Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles |
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| Sooglossus sechellensis | Seychelles | Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles | 2008 |
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| Sooglossus thomasseti | Seychelles | Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles | 2008 |
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| Spicospina flammocaerulea | Australia | Perth Zoo | 2005 |
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| Strabomantis bufoniformis | Panama | El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center | 2006 |
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| Telmatobius hintoni | Bolivia | Museo de Historia Natural Alcide d’Orbigny | 2005 |
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| Telmatobius yuracare | Bolivia | Museo de Historia Natural Alcide d’Orbigny | 2003 |
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| Theloderma bicolor | Vietnam | Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources | 2006 |
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Reference:
Pessier, A.P. and J.R. Mendelson (eds.). 2010. A Manual for Control of Infectious Diseases in Amphibian Survival Assurance Colonies and Reintroduction Programs. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group: Apple Valley, MN.
